Talking past: The art of ancient trade

Though often called the “Hermit Kingdom,” Korea’s rich trade history enabled the exchange of cultural customs and technology. From the ancient days of the Three Kingdoms period to the most recent Joseon Dynasty, traders explored the depths of the world beyond Korea’s borders.

The oldest artifacts found in Korea’s national museums delineate the history of trade between the peninsula and the outside world from as early as the 5th century. By land and sea, Korea was greatly affected by its surrounding countries and also served as a conduit to others. Though it is reputed as a “Hermit Kingdom,” the peninsula had access to a variety of trade routes, opening the country to boundless new cultures and helping shape the country as it is today.

National Museum of Korea (Yonhap News)

* Brothers in Buddhism

The rise of Buddhism in Korea is the simplest way to see how widespread trade was among Asian countries. Buddhism, which originated in India, first spread to Southeast Asia and then to countries bordering western China (currently China’s Xinjiang Uyghur and Ningxia Hui Autonomous regions), before arriving at the Korean Peninsula in 372 AD. Although the birthplace of Buddhism is now dominated by Hinduism and Islam, in countries like Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Tibet and Korea, the religion is still prevalent today.

Accordingly, the abundance of Buddhist relics here and its integration in local history make it impossible to discuss Korean ancient art without Buddhist sculptures and other related artifacts. Similarities can be found among religious artifacts from China and Southeast Asia, demonstrating a certain level of cultural exchange. Among these, the 7th century Pensive Bodhisattva (National Treasure No 83) is considered one of the most representative examples of foreign influence on Korean designs. Similar to Auguste Rodin’s The Thinker, the statue is characterized by its contemplative pose, legs half-crossed and a lowered head accented by the light touch of its hand on its cheek.

The making of Pensive Bodhisattva statues began in the 3rd or 4th century. This form of Buddhist sculpture was developed in the Gandhara region of India and spread to China in the 5th century along with the religion’s dissemination through Central Asia. The sculpture style came to Korea in the late 6th century and was introduced to Japan by the early 7th century.

The crown on the figure’s head consists of three half disks connected side by side, and its relatively simple is unique. Modeled after those worn by kings and princes, the crowns in Buddhist sculptures were used exclusively for bodhisattva statues, and are not found on works from India and China. The figure’s eyes are half-closed and the faint smile on its lips gives the statue an aura of sublime contemplation. Upon closer inspection, the inner corners of the eyes reveal a trait known as the “Mongolian which originated in India, first spread to Southeast Asia and then to countries bordering western China (currently China’s Xinjiang Uyghur fold,” revealing the statue’s race.

At Koryuji Temple in Kyoto, Japan, there is a wooden statue so similar to the Korean gilt-bronze sculpture in design and posture that it is often mistaken as its twin – in fact, many art historians believe they were made by the same artisan. “There is no doubt that the Baekje Kingdom helped spread Buddhism to Japan,” says Heo Hyeongwook, a curator at Gyeongju National Museum in Korea.

However, as monks spread the word of Buddha, invariably, other cultural items and ideas were also transferred between traveled countries. “It would have been common for monks to bring their personal belongings to other countries, where exchanges would occur. It’s not just by coincidence that there are foreign and foreign-style artifacts buried in Silla-era tombs,” Heo adds.

The curator refers to a glass artifact found in the Hwangnam Daechong, or the Great Tomb of Hwangnam, which is evidence of the active traffic amongst countries. The piece, which was designated National Treasure No 193, was estimated to have been ancient Roman, from a Western European or Mediterranean country. The light, bluegreen colored glass has a golden thread wrapped around its handle, which experts believe was used to strengthened the glass. They say the bottle is shaped similar to a Greek oinochoe, a type of wine pitcher with a curved structure and a handle attached perpendicularly to the body of a bottle. “It’s hard to tell how this glass bottle was brought to the Korean Peninsula,” says Park Nam-su of the National Institute of Korean History. “It could have come through China during trade, or it might have been made here in Korea by a foreigner.”

* From land to sea

The Silk Road connected Asia and Europe, serving as a vital link between Eastern and Western civilizations. Though there are not many accounts of Korean merchants actually trading products on the road, the 8th century monk Hyecho wrote an account of his journeys via the Silk Road that serves as evidence of the outward reach of the Silla Kingdom. Called the Wang Ocheonchukguk Jeon (Memoir of the Pilgrimage to the Five Kingdoms of India), the first Korean travelogue is a highly-valued cultural relic today.

Another example of Silla presence on the Silk Road is reflected in local statues made in the image of foreigners. At Heungdeogwangneung, the Royal Tomb of King Heungdeok, statues of soldiers stand guard near the entrance, wearing hats and outfits that match the appearance of Sogdians, ancient Iranian soldiers that were known to travel the Silk Road. The imitation shows familiarity with foreign cultures, indicating a certain level of interaction. Similar, smaller statues dressed in the Sogdian style were also found in tombs around Gyeongju, Gyeongsangbuk-do Province in the 7th century.

The Silk Road began to decline in the late 9th century, as sea routes came into prominence. The historical icon Jang Bogo helped establish water trade routes, as he saw the need for a new hub of exchange with China and Japan. “Jang was in charge of taking envoys to the new world,” says Park of the National Institute of Korean History. Jang set up a garrison on Wando Island on the southern coast and also protected the commercial activities of Silla merchants and envoys to China and Japan. The new trade hub opened opportunities for more diverse trading. “Before, it was only possible to trade between two countries at a time: The Tang Dynasty (618-907) traded with Silla and Silla traded with Japan. With the new sea routes, multilateral trade helped boost economic activity,” says Park.

* Democratic growth

Experts debate whether or not civilians actively engaged in inter-country trade during the Silla era, as trade was largely limited to tributes. However, civilian trading became much more vibrant with the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) and the rise of sea routes, which in turn spread the word about the country.

This growth helped shape Korea in an interesting way. As more and more people across the world heard the name Goryeo, it was eventually translated into other tongues before evolving into its modern-day variation. “We believe that ‘Korea’ originated from ‘Goryeo,’ since the pronunciation is very similar,” says Oh Young-sun, a curator at the National Museum of Korea.

Along with Goryeo’s efforts to expand through trade, China’s Song Dynasty (960-1279), the largest trading partner of Goryeo, also took a role in modernizing the country. To help spur the fast-paced trade industry, Goryeo introduced the first coin currency in the nation during King Seongjong’s reign. “It was the first time ancient Korean countries had an item that was used solely as currency,” says Oh. “Currency then became more widespread in the Joseon Dynasty.”

The trade of Goryeo could be categorized into two types, though they were not mutually exclusive. One was tributary trade with the Song Dynasty, which included precious items such as Goryeo celadon, jewelry, gold, jade and other luxury products. The other category of trade was the more diverse items exchanged between commoners. Goryeo merchants would sell paper, ink
sticks and ink stones, and seek out items rare to the peninsula, such as tea, spices, musical instruments, and sometimes ivory or glass products. “Tributary trade was sometimes categorized as civilian, since foreign messengers and envoys would exchange their own belongings and purchase local goods to take home,” says Lee Mi-ji of the National Institute of Korean History.

The base of all trade during this time was Byeongnando port at the western mouth of Yeseonggang River near Gaegyeong, which is now Gaeseong in North Korea. The Yeseonggang River was considered advantageous because of its deep waters, which enabled large vessels to dock.

The Gaoli Tujing, a record written in 1123 by a Song Dynasty envoy to the country, states that one of the most popular items of choice for trade was Goryeo celadon. Its pale green color, similar to the color of jade, helped its popularity among outsiders. This is reflected in the stores unearthed in a sunken Chinese merchant vessel discovered near Sinan, Jeollanam-do Province, in the 1970s. Believed to have gone down in the early 14th century after being abandoned near Korean shores, the ship was found to have been filled with Goryeo celadon wares.

Other artifacts, such as the Ten-Story Stone Pagoda from Gyeongcheonsa Temple, show direct influence from countries outside of the Song Dynasty. The structure, which was also the first pagoda to be made of marble, show signs of Tibetan Buddhist influences in its lower levels, while the upper stories are classically Korean. The intricately crafted roof, however, does not fit into any single style.

“Imagine your handwriting. Even if you try to copy someone else’s handwriting, your own style will be mixed in with the imitation,” says Heo Hyeong-wook of the Gyeongju National Museum. “That’s how it is with Buddhist artifacts.”

* Trilateral trade

Trade grew even more during the 18th century of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) and was the peak of trilateral trade between China, Japan and Joseon. Korea (Joseon) mostly exported wild ginseng, while China’s Qing Dynasty (1636-1912) put silk on the market and the Japanese traded silver. An ancient document from the time states how abundant overseas trade was, and the scholar Lee Junghwan’s Taengniji writings read that, “The richest men in Joseon are all merchants who do overseas trade.”

Besides trading tangible products, China’s Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) was also active in literary exchanges. Envoys of the Ming Dynasty exchanged handwritten poems with Joseon scholars, including Jeong In-ji, and Seong Sam-mun in 1450. Collection of Poems by the Ming Envoys and Joseon Academians, Treasure No 1404, shows that trade embraced new thought and opinion as well, helping open Korea to the rest of the world.

By Lee Sun-min
Article from KOREA Magazine August 2011